The Corpus of ROMANESQUE SCULPTURE in Britain & Ireland
Cathedral, formerly Benedictine monastery
Cathedral, formerly Benedictine monastery
The church begun by Abbot Paul of Caen (1077-93) in 1077 had an aisled eastern arm of 4 bays; the central vessel with an apse and the aisles perhaps apsed too (see Fernie 2000, 112), although nothing has been found to clarify the arrangement.The cruciform church had 3-bay transepts; the inner bays corresponding to the nave and chancel aisles, with a pair of stepped chapels on the E side of each. The exterior view from the east would thus have shown an echelon of 7 apses. The nave was originally of 10 bays. The nave elevation is of 3 storeys with a tribune gallery and clerestorey above the arcade. As a whole the articulation is very plain with practically no shafts, probably a result of the building materials used in the construction. The church is largely of flint with re-used Roman brick taken from the Roman site of Verulamium used for strengthening and as dressing where right angles were needed.
The new church was consecrated in 1115, in the abbacy of Abbot Paul's successor Richard d'Aubeney (1097-19), then from the end of the 12thc, Abbot John de Cella lengthened the nave by 3 bays, rebuilding the westernmost bay in the process. He also commissioned a new W front from Hugh of Goldclif, described by Matthew Paris as 'an untrustworthy and deceitful man, but a consummate craftsman'. True to form, Goldclif used up all the money and kept demanding more until the abbot could stand it now longer. Goldclif was dismissed and the incomplete facade left to crumble for want of funding to complete it. After more several delays the W end was eventually completed c.1230 under Abbot William of Trumpington (1214-35). The eastern arm was rebuilt and extended eastwards in the 13th; the work beginning with a rebuilding of the choir aisles from 1235, and including a new presbytery, a feretory for the shrine of St Alban, a retrochoir and a Lady Chapel at the E end. The last of these was completed early in the 14thc. In 1323 bays 5 to 9 of the S nave arcade were rebuilt (to match the Early English work further west) following a collapse.
After the Dissolution of the abbey in 1539 the monastic buildings were sold to Sir Richard Lee for building materials, and the church passed to the town. The east end was converted into a Grammar School, and the remainder became a parish church, apparently ill-maintained. Part of the S nave wall fell through the aisle roof in 1832, and repairs were carried out by L. N. Cottingham. A campaign of restoration was carried out by Sir Gilbert Scott from 1856 to 1877, and he restrored the S nave clerestorey, reroofed the S aisle restored the Lady Chapel and stabilised the crossing tower. He also reunited the E end with the rest of the church. Restoration was continued by Lord Grimthorpe after Scott's death, and his approach was much more intrusive. In the 1880s and '90s he completely rebuilt the west front and the transept facades as well as restoring the Lady Chapel, eastern arm and nave, all at his own expense, and he was heavily criticized for his approach. Meanwhile in 1877 the diocese of St Albans had been consituted, with the abbey as its cathedral. The see initially covered Hertfordshire, Bedfordshire and Essex, although the last of these gained its own see at Chelmsford in 1914.
Cathedral, formerly Benedictine monastery
The first abbey on the site dated from c.655 and was destroyed by the Danes at the end of the 9c. It was rebuilt by Aethelwold, Bishop of Winchester, and consecrated in 972. Aethelwold’s abbey was damaged by a fire in 1116 and, according to the contemporary chronicler Hugh Candidus, completely rebuilt from 1118, the present church being consecrated in 1238 by Bishop Grosseteste of Lincoln.
The church is therefore a generation later than the first wave of post-Conquest great churches, including the other East Anglian foundations of Ely (begun 1082) and Norwich (1096). The church consists of an aisled chancel, transepts with eastern aisles for chapels and an aisled nave with a west transept. It is described from east to west in more detail below.
Chancel and New Building
The aisled chancel originally had apses at the ends of the main vessel and aisles. The main apse is still there; it is stilted in plan, i.e. it consists of a straight-sided bay and 3 turning bays. On the interior the apse arch responds survive to the level of the capitals, but the arch itself, and the rib-vaulting of the apse itself (indicated by the vault shafts) are gone. As for the elevation, the arches of the two upper storeys survive on the interior, but on the exterior the top level window openings are 12thc and those below have been reframed. The exterior elevation also has blind arcading between the clerestorey and gallery levels of the apse.The 12thc apse is now enclosed by the so-called New Building; a square-ended eastern termination five bays wide, entered from the chancel aisles. When the abbey was suppressed it contained three altars with scenes of the Passion. The New Building was begun by Abbot Ashton in 1438 and completed by Abbot Kirton (1496-1528), and the transition from the narrow Norman aisle into the bright, fan-vaulted space beyond is one of the delights of a visit to Peterborough.
The four-bay chancel is three storeys high, with a main arcade carried on three piers of different plans, cylindrical, octagonal and dodecagonal, and triple shafted responds at either end, against the crossing pier and the pier of the apse arch. The gallery above has double openings with decorated and pierced tympana under an enclosing arch, and the clerestorey has a passage with triple openings, a tall central arch flanked by lower ones. Vault shafts run up the piers to the level of the springing of the central clerestorey arches, where they support a wooden fan-vaulted 15c ceiling. The chancel aisles are divided by depressed arches into quadripartite rib-vaulted bays. The transverse arches fall onto the main arcade pier capitals and onto responds against the aisle wall. One of the 12c aisle windows remains in the north aisle, as do parts of the intersecting arcading decorating the aisle walls.
On the exterior there are turrets with spirelets above the piers of the apse arch. The aisle walls have 12c buttresses with angle shafts between the bays, and these have been strengthened by the addition of later medieval buttresses at the lower levels. All the chancel aisle and gallery windows have been replaced, except for one in the north aisle. The clerestorey windows retain their 12c form, except for those in the turning bays of the apse, which have been replaced with larger segmental headed windows. All windows are now filled with tracery; panelled in the chancel clerestorey and aisles, and at all levels in the apse, and flowing in the chancel galleries. The apse is decorated with intersecting blind arcading in a band below the top windows, and there is evidence on the north side of more arcading that originally decorated the aisle walls below the gallery windows. The aisle walls have chevron stringcourses between the storeys. The tops of the clerestorey walls of the chancel and apse have been rebuilt; the chancel with a plain nebuly corbel table and a parapet decorated with quatrefoils, and the apse with a similar corbel table and a plain parapet decorated with five 13c busts in trefoils.
The main transepts are of 3 projecting bays with chapels on the E side and no aisle on the W. The position of the cloister square, one bay W of the S transept W wall, indicates that an aisle was originally envisaged, as at Winchester and Ely, and there is antiqaurian evidence for the foundations of these aisles (see Fernie (2019), 169). The end walls are treated as 4 storeys: 3 with windows and the lowest decorated with blind arcading. These and the crossing tower were the work of Abbot William of Waterville (1155-74).
The nave is of ten bays with four different compound pier designs and a three-storey elevation of arcade gallery and clerestorey with passage. Part of the explanation of the varied pier designs stems from an original scheme for a nine-bay nave, in which pier 9 was conceived as the W respond. The change of base profile on the E and W sides of this pier in the S arcade make this clear. A detailed breakdown of the building sequence has been attempted by Donald Mackreth. It is usefully summarised in Fernie (2019) and divides work into the abbacies of Martin (1133-55), William (1155-74 and Benedict (1177-94). At arcade level Martin was responsible for 9 bays of the S side and the first 2 on the N, William for the next 2 on the S, and Benedict for the remainder on both sides. In the 10th bay angled shafts and vault springers survive at the W side indicating that Benedict intended to vault, but the scheme was never taken forward and the present 13thc nave ceiling was constructed instead.
The W transept, which extends as a single space from N to S, projecting by one short bay at either end. The E wall of this continues the forms of the nave in its gallery and clerestorey arcades, but it also includes very tall and narrow windows with pointed arches in the projecting sections. On the W wall all details are Early English, so that the (slightly pointed) transverse arches of the vault spring from scallop capitals in the E and fall onto moulded ones at the W, while the arches between them are decorated with elaborate free-standing chevron forms found nowhere else in the cathedral.
The end date for the W facade as it was ultimately completed is usually assumed to correspond with the consecration of the church in 1238, in the abbacy of Walter of Bury St Edmunds, but as Luxford (2019, 216) points out it may have stood unconsecrated for a few years before that. The design at any rate is unique in England, consisting of a galilee faced by three mighty arches of equal heights, each with a gable with a rose. There are carved figures in niches in the gable and the spandrels of the arches, spirelets between the gables and a tower with a spire at each end of the compostion. The galilee is some 5 m. deep , with a central doorway and blind arcading decorating the inner wall. The Trinity chapel, elevated above a lower vaulted entrance arch was later added at the front of the central arch. The upper storey has housed the library since the 18thc., and is accessed by a pair of flanking stair turrets decorated externally with blind tracery panels and niches for statues, none of which remain in place. The date of this is a matter of dispute; and it might contain elements of different periods. The consensus seems to point to a date c.1370-80, with a suggestion that the W window could be a 15thc insertion, although the present author sees no reason to suppose this (see Reilly (2019).
Cathedral, formerly Benedictine monastery
The church begun by Abbot Simeon in 1082 had a 13-bay aisled nave, four-bay aisled transepts, a crossing with a tower, and a four-bay aisled chancel terminating in an apse. At the W end was a second transept with E chapels and a second tower. A western Galilee porch was added in the 13thc. (1198–1215), and the chancel was extended to the E with a six-bay retrochoir, completed in 1252. In 1321 the Lady Chapel was added to the N of the choir, and a year later the crossing tower collapsed. The octagon, built to replace it, was completed by 1342, and in the same campaign the remaining bays of the 11thc. chancel were replaced. The only above-ground survivals of the original chancel are the two easternmost piers of its straight section. Elsewhere in the building, the N section of the W transept collapsed in the late 15thc., and the NW corner of the N transept in 1699. The former was merely consolidated, the latter rebuilt.
The generally accepted chronology for the standing Norman work dates the lower parts of the entire S transept and the E wall of the N transept to the period between 1082 and the start of the abbatial vacancy in 1093. Stylistic comparisons with work dated between 1118 and 1125 at nearby Peterborough Cathedral suggest that the remainder of the transepts and the nave were completed between the appointment of Abbot Richard in 1100, and the 1120s. The earliest work in the lowest levels of the W transept also belongs to the 1120s, but there is a marked stylistic break above gallery level, and thereafter such late-century features as pointed arches, keeled mouldings and crocket capitals begin to appear. These apparently belong to the campaign of Bishop Geoffrey Ridel (1174–89), who also completed the tower. Not included in this report is the new Galilee porch built, or posthumously funded, by Bishop Eustace (1197–1215). The following description of the various parts of the cathedral roughly follows the building history.
S transept:
This must begin inside the S transept, whose E and W walls have a three-storey, three-bay elevation of arcade, gallery with twin openings and clerestorey with a passage. The three arches of the E arcade were originally entrances to chapels, and the S one still is, but the other two have been blocked off with masonry and combined to form the Old Library, accessible from the S choir aisle. On the W side, the aisle was screened off in the 12thc., but the evidence of two blocked doorways in the E walk of the cloister indicates that entry to the transept was originally possible from the monastic buildings via this aisle. The arcade level to E and W (including the E chapels and W aisle and extending to the first respond of the S nave aisle wall) is the earliest standing fabric of the church. Arches are unmoulded, capitals are of the Norman volute type, some carved with foliage and animals, and the ashlar is coarsely tooled. The same features are noticeable in the lowest level of the S wall, but not in the arcade erected in front of it, which provides a support for the platform linking the E and W galleries. Above the arcade level on all three walls there is a marked change. Tooling is finer, volute capitals have been replaced by cushions, and the orders of arches have acquired angle and soffit rolls. It is normal to connect this disjunction with the abbatial vacancy that lasted from the death of Simeon in 1093 to the appointment of Abbot Richard de Clare in 1100, although Barlow has suggested that the presence of Ranulf Flambard, who managed the abbey's finances from five years before Simeon's death, and throughout the interregnum might have provided a stabilising influence.
Whatever the date of the change in design, it is clear enough that the upper levels of all three walls, the tall arcade on the S wall, and the blocking of the W aisle all postdate it. Much later comes the addition of the 15thc. Fourth storey window in the S gable. Some evidence for the original arrangement appears on the exterior, where remains of the springing of a wall arcade are visible. The E windows of the E chapels were replaced in the late 13thc., and those of the E and W galleries in the 15thc.
On the exterior the S transept facade reflects the nave and aisle structure within. The gabled, five-storey central section is divided from the two-storey aisles by broad, flat buttresses that transpose, at the bottom of the fifth storey, into two-storey octagonal turrets with pyramidal roofs. The two storeys of the turrets are decorated with blind arcading and there are cusped corbel tables under the eaves and sets of three corbels at the top of the lower storey.
N transept:
The interior of the N transept shows the same change in design as the S, but not in the same places. Only the E arcade and its two southernmost chapels have all the earlier forms, the N chapel has cushion capitals on the vault supports and a roll moulding in its N window. The N and W sides of the transept have the newer forms throughout (although roll-moulded arches do not appear on the W arcade). Examination of this area of the building is complicated by the restoration following the 1699 collapse of the NW corner. This affects the W half of the N wall, inside and out, and the N part of the W arcade and aisle wall. Other changes to the fabric in the N transept are the replacement of the windows of the E chapels, the W gallery and the N clerestorey in the later Middle Ages.
A comparison of the arcades of the two transepts reveals a rather curious disjunction. Both have an alternation of compound and circular piers, but the system has been reversed so that in the S those nearest the crossing are circular, whereas in the N they are compound. The original arrangement, with four-bay transepts and a smaller, square crossing, would have made this inconsistency even more obvious. The reason for the change surely has nothing to do with the balcony at gallery level on the end wall, but might relate to the original roofing arrangements. Both transepts have wooden roofs now, and did originally, but the present roofs date from the 15thc. In the S there is nothing to indicate the original form of the roof beyond the thin buttresses between the bays at clerestorey level only. In the N, however, a half-column respond runs the entire height of the wall between the two northernmost bays only. This would seem to imply a roofing system based on double bays, although it is curious to find the strong roof support here rather than a bay further S.
The N transept facade differs from the S in the treatment of the turrets. A square plan with chamfered and shafted angles is maintained from ground level up to their sixth storey, where they clear the gable. At this point the plan becomes circular, and decorated with a blind arcade syncopated with the cusping of the corbel table above. The E turret is original; the W is a copy.
Nave:
The original 13-bay nave had its easternmost bays communicating with the transept W aisles. This arrangement was lost with the introduction of the Octagon at the crossing, and the present 12 bays are all W of the transept. The elevation is similar to that of the transepts, with alternating round and compound piers, galleries with double openings and triple openings to the clerestorey passage, and it is remarkably regular. Unlike the transepts, however, every pier has a respond running the entire height of the wall as a roof support. Again, too, the original roof is no longer evident; the present ceiling dates from the 19thc. Pevsner finds the ambiguity between a double-bay and a single-bay system indecisive. Within this uniform system there are differences between the N and S elevations. On the N side the roof support responds have the form of half shafts against dosserets, but this system is used only for the first two piers on the S. Further W the main half shafts are flanked by a pair of smaller ones. The treatment of the circular piers also differs between the N and S elevations. In both cases the arch they carry is of three orders, and the piers are supplied with a broad cushion capital for the two inner orders linked to a smaller one for the outer order. On the N side these small capitals simply hang, with no member to support them, whereas on the S they have half-column supports coursed with the piers. These differences suggest that the N arcade was laid out before the S, but above the level of the capitals the two arcades apparently proceeded side by side. The key to this is a change of arch design at bay 5 on both sides, and a change of gallery opening design at bay 4. In the arcade arches the four E bays have angle rolls on their inner and outer orders only, whereas from bay 5 all three orders have angle rolls. In the gallery the change is the addition of a hollow moulding to the face of the inner order. Both changes seem slight, but they provide valuable evidence for the sequence of building.
Capitals are mostly cushions, but they are by no means entirely uniform. Common variables include the presence or absence of clearly defined shields, or keels or tucks at the angles, but scattered seemingly at random around the upper levels are a few scallop capitals, capitals decorated with fluting, and decorative imposts.
The interior nave aisle walls are decorated with simple blind arcading and a chevron string course at dado level. On the N side the aisle windows have been replaced, but on the S a change of design can be seen in bays 9–11, where the windows are taller, the chevron units of the string course are longer, and the blind arcade has five units per bay instead of four. The easternmost bay on this side (bay 12) has no window (because of the SW transept chapel alongside it), and is articulated with two rows of blind arcading, the upper with intersecting arches, and with opus reticulatum in the lunette below the vault. The arch into the W transept from bay 12 is richly decorated with chevron ornament. The elaboration of this bay is the only preparation for the riot of surface decoration that breaks out in the SW transept.
The gallery windows on both sides of the nave, and the N aisle windows were replaced in the later Middle Ages.
W transept:
In the SW transept, the E wall is the plainest, having two bays with single openings on the ground storey, twin openings at gallery level and triple openings to the clerestorey passage. The two lower levels of the S bay give onto a two-storey E chapel, dedicated to St Catherine, which was ruinous in the early 19thc. and was rebuilt in 1848. Only the S wall is original. The S and W walls of the transept are much more richly articulated. Each has six storeys of arcading, which include a gallery and a clerestorey with a passage. The S wall also has a triforium passage, and the remaining storeys, three on the S and four on the W, are of blind arcading of various designs. There is a stylistic progression from the lower storeys to the upper. On the lower levels capitals are predominantly simple cushions, there are scallops at gallery level and trefoil, waterleaf and crocket capitals above this. In the clerestorey arcade too the arches are pointed, all suggesting that the upper levels were not completed much before the end of the 12thc. What little remains of the NW transept suggests that it was organisationally a mirror image of its companion, but with some differences in detail, including fret decoration on the E wall gallery arches and cushion capitals where the S transept has crockets, implying that it was built first.
The largely rebuilt transept chapel is built right in the angle of nave and transept, so only two windows are possible. On the exterior, it is divided into eight bays by responds, the third and sixth bays from the S being wider and containing the ground floor and gallery windows. Bays 1, 2, 4 and 5 each contain a blind arch at both levels. The exterior of the transept displays perhaps the most spectacular and satisfying ensemble of superimposed arcading in the country: five storeys of arcading above a plain plinth storey on the main walls, rising by two more arcaded storeys on the decagonal angle turrets.
W Tower:
The cathedral is liberally supplied with corbel tables: at gallery and clerestorey levels on nave and transepts, on the main transept turrets, below the battlements of the west transept and on the turrets there, and at the eaves level of St Catherine's chapel (although these almost all date from the 1847 restoration). The quality is high, although the range of subjects is fairly restricted, including human, animal and grotesque heads and a few exhibitionists. String courses too are limited in type, the carved examples confined to billet, sawtooth, single chevron and chequer ornament.
The same system continues higher on the walls of the W tower, which, in its 12thc. lower part, rises six storeys above the nave battlements. It is square in plan with octagonal angle turrets rising no higher than the tower body. It was completed by around 1200, and provided with a spire some 30 years later. The spire was replaced by an octagon storey in the later 14thc. Presumably the tower arches inside were replaced at the same time, but the original chevron-decorated arches remain visible.
Cloister:
Of the Romanesque cloister nothing remains except sections of wall arcading on the outside of the S nave aisle, and the handsomely carved doorways for which Ely is famous. The Prior's doorway, at the W end of the cloister walk, is deservedly the most celebrated, but the remains of the Monks' and Vestry doorways at the E end of the walk are considerable works by the same carvers. All three must date from around 1130–35, and the remains of an earlier doorway into the S transept aisle also survive at the N end of the E walk.
Tombs:
Only one tomb is included in the survey; the beautiful Tournai marble slab depicting St Michael carrying a naked soul, assumed to be Bishop Nigel's (1131–69), in the N chancel aisle.
In the following descriptions, features such as piers and bays are always numbered starting at the crossing. Hence bay 1 of the N transept is the S bay, while bay 1 of the S transept is the N bay. The interior treatment of windows and doorways is only described when it includes some elaboration.
The author is grateful for the assistance of Stephen Wikner, the Cathedral Bursar, Susan Matthews, the Curator of the Stained Glass Museum, and for the cheerful and unfailing support of the clergy, vergers and cathedral guides.
Cathedral, formerly Benedictine monastery
The church was begun in 1092, presumably at the E. Of the 11th-12thc. work the E wall of the N transept survives, with a chapel arch and above it a triforium. Judging from the evidence of the fabric, the chapel, originally apsed, was remodelled early in the 13thc. and given a square end. Towards the end of the 14thc. a doorway was inserted from the chapel into the N choir aisle, and it may have been at that time that the arch into the transept was walled up and the chapel turned into a vestry. It remained blocked and invisible, at least from the transept side, until 1930, when it was re-opened. At that time 'traces of colour and patterns' were visible (Story of Chester 1939), but they are not now. The higher levels of the transept are Perpendicular. The only other 12thc. feature of the church is the tower at the W end of the N aisle, now a baptistery and dateable stylistically some 40-50 years after the N transept. Inside the church its E and S arches and its N window have scallop capitals, and the remains of a similar window are visible in the W bay of the N aisle wall. For the rest of the church, the five-bay choir can be dated to c.1300, the Lady Chapel slightly earlier (c.1260-80), and the crossing and S transept to the early- to mid-14thc. The nave arcades appear uniform on N and S, but in fact the S side belongs to the 1360s and the N to Abbot Ripley's time (1485-93). St Werburgh's Chapel was a late Perpendicular addition to the end of the N choir aisle.
Construction is of red sandstone, but the appearance of the exterior in particular owes much to the various campaigns of restoration carried out in the 19thc. The earliest of these was Harrison's (1818-20), followed by Hussey (from 1844), Scott (from 1868) and Blomfield (from 1882).
The cloister is to the N of the church, and here a good deal of Romanesque fabric still stands. Starting with the W or Cellarer's range, alongside the 12thc. NW tower is the rib-vaulted Abbot's Passage, entered through a 12thc. doorway, with St Anselm's Chapel above it. To the N of this is the long groin-vaulted undercroft of the range: a structure in two sections now housing an exhibition area and the cathedral shop, and originally extending beyond the square of the cloister to the N. Turning the NW corner into the N walk there is a 13thc. doorway to a passage between the Cellarer's range and the refectory. This last takes up the whole of the walk, and is of c.1300 as it stands. The Warming Room, containing the day-stair giving access to the dormitory, occupies the N end of the E range. Between this and the chapter house vestibule is the slype, and the S end of the walk is occupied by the W wall of the N transept. The S wall of the S walk, i.e. the other side of the N nave aisle wall of the church, is entirely 12thc., and contains two rows of three segmental-headed niches, very shallow for wall tombs, and at the E end of the walk an elaborate late 12thc. doorway into the N nave aisle. The cloister arcades were rebuilt c.1525-30. St Anselm's Chapel itself is built at the S end of the W cloister walk, between the Cellarer's range and the NW tower of the church, and above the Abbot's Passage. It is a mid-12thc. vaulted chapel, described more fully in section IV.4.c below.